PhD Proposal The Effect of learning English in an early age on the Essay

PhD Proposal The Effect of learning English in an early age on the phonological errors in EFL Saudi classes - Essay Example his can cause a great deal of strain in the efforts to communicate in English when pronunciation is diminished because of difficulties with forming English words through a tongue that is trained to form sound within the framework of another language. Learning a second language at an earlier age may diminish this effect as the ability to form language can be more easily manipulated. Phonological errors occur when syllables are either missed or not pronounced within a communication. The forms of these errors can include, but not necessarily be limited to errors involving consonants, vowels, substitutions, additions, omissions, movements, exchanges, prosody (the metrical sound of the way that the language is formed), metathesis (the transposition of letters, sounds, or syllables), or non-contextual errors where there seems to be no definable source (Jaeger, 2005, p 147). According to Binturki (2008), the most common phonological errors that are found in Saudi speakers within their use of the English Language are with the interdentally fricative /v/ and to some degree with the /p/ and /i/. As well, the positions of certain words created difficulty form many users of the English language with the common Arabic dialect of Nadji as their primary language (p. i). The proposed study will be based upon the study done by Tiono and Yostanto (2008) on the phonological errors that were common among Indonesian speaking students when learning the English language (p. 80). The study was centrally focused on the English consonantal sounds that do not exist in the Indonesian language. The researchers identified six specific sounds that were absent in Indonesian and therefore caused difficulty for these students who had completed six courses of education in English (Tiono and Yostanto, 2008, p. 81). An auditory examination was given to 25 students from a private university in East Java, Indonesia where the phonological differences could be appreciated through listening to the

Jain Man Fasts to Death Essay Example for Free

Jain Man Fasts to Death Essay A 76 year old Indian man died of starvation that is called â€Å"santhara†. It is an old practice in Jainism where a person fasts for a number of days and is believed to help the person achieve salvation. Some people are still not amenable to this practice as they believe that this is a sort of suicide. On the other hand, Amar Chand, the man who died, believed that it would help him cleanse his soul as he has been ill for some time already. â€Å"Santhara† is a religious ritual described as intended death by fasting. During the process of fasting, the person is given time to reflect on his life, which is reason why this is considered to bring salvation. If someone feels like he has served his purpose in life and felt like he has imparted enough of himself to the world, one can decide to fast. There are a lot of religious practices in the world; some may even seem absurd and illogical. However, to the followers of the specific religions, their belief stands by the fact that they would be able to achieve something out of it; in this case, salvation. If you think about it, to decide that you have served your purpose is a sign of consciousness and knowledge of the belief that you are following. It shows that given enough will power and faith in something, anybody can do anything. To the Jains, though some may think that â€Å"santhara† is synonymous to suicide, they still hold on to the practice because as far as they know, being able to reflect upon one’s life can help them save themselves from spiritual death just as the Muslims believe that they need to travel to Mecca at least once in their life.

Importance of Database Security

Importance of Database Security To be able to manage a huge amount of data effectively and fast, a well organized system is needed to build. It will also need to store and retrieve data easily. Generally, a database system is designed to be used by many users simultaneously for the specific collections of data. Databases are classified based on their types of collections, such as images, numeric, bibliographic or full-text. Digitized databases are created by using management system to make, store, maintain or search the data. Oracle, MS SQL and Sybase servers are mostly used in companies, agencies and institutions for their different purposes of the assets. On the one hand, internetworking technology provides the assets efficiently and effectively among cooperation but it also gives opportunities to hackers or lawbreakers to make profits. So, database security becomes the most important issue and all related agencies have to focus on the availability of their data to the authorized users only. The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure, alteration or destruction is the main purpose of the database security process. Database security is the system, processes, and procedures that protect database from unintended activity that can be categorized as authenticated misuse, malicious attacks made by authorized individuals or processes. Databases have been protected from external connections by firewalls or routers on the network perimeter with the database environment. Database security can begin with the process of creation and publishing of appropriate security standards for the database environment. Particularly database systems in E-commerce, can access the database for exchange and retrieval of information from web applications. As many layers consisted for web application access, it is needed to make sure the security of each layer. In this paper, we are making an attempt to present how to make secure database in each layer of database system of ecommerce in details. Importance of Database Security In this information technology age, it is compulsory for all types of institutions or companies to make avail their information assets online always through databases. However, they must have a policy to divide the levels of users with to which extent they can asset the information. It is vital not to give opportunities to mischievous intruders. Databases are used to provide personnel information, customer information, credit card numbers, financial data and business transactions, etc. The information is very sensitive and highly confidential and must be prevented from disclosure by other competitors and unauthorized persons. The security of data is crucial not only in business but also in even home computers as personal files, details of bank accounts are difficult to replace and potentially unsafe if they will be in wrong hands. Data destroyed by hazards like floods or fire is just lost but handing it in unethical person will have severe consequences. Other threats will be included human errors and espionage. Therefore, the data security starts with strategies of identifying the area of exposure which will be affected. It is important to define who can access what data, who is allowed and who is restricted, whether passwords are used and how to maintain it, what sort of firewalls and anti-malware solutions to use, how to train the staff and to enforce data security. Furthermore, the backup continuity plan should be laid out so that even though the systems fail, the business can be carried out without delay. While constructing the infrastructure security of a company, database security should be well considered. Database is very crucial to most enterprises at present days; the damage of database will have tragic impact on it. Unsecured systems will make hurt both the company itself and its clients. Based on the research done by American National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) in 2000, the continuous attacks on U.S. e-commerce system are increasing. The most interrupted system is Microsoft Windows NT systems, but UNIX based operating systems have also been maltreated. The hackers are utilizing at least three identified system weaknesses to be able to achieve illegal access and download information. Even though these vulnerabilities are not freshly innovated and the mischievous activities of hackers had been in progress for quite long before the sufferer became noticed of the intrusion. The insecurity of the database can affect not only the database itself, but also the other running systems which have the relationship with that database. The process of an intruder can be first to get access to the poorly safe database, then use strong built-in database characters to get admission to the local operating system. In this way, other trusted systems connecting with that database will be easily attacked by the intruder. Database Security in E-commerce database Database system cannot stand alone and it needs to depend on many other systems. Hence, database security is a combination of many other associated and correlated systems are included as well. The following figure is a normal schema of E-commerce Company. In figure 1, the four basic layers are existed in order to defend a database system. These systems are the functioning system on which the database system runs. Firewall is a commonly applied mechanism to obstruct the interruption from the external network. Web server and web application offer numerous services to the end user by accessing the database. Network layer is the medium in which the data is transmitted. Operating system layer Operating system security is a very important characteristic in database administration. Some dominant features of database systems will possibly be a crack for the underlying operating system. Thus, the responsible person should very thoroughly scan the relations between a feature of database and it is operating system. According to Gollmann, there are five layers in Information Technology system. These layers are application, services, operating system, os kernel and hardware. Each layer is constructed on top of other fundamental ones. As the database system is at the service and application layer, it is existed in above the operating system layer. If the weaknesses of the operating system platforms are identified, then those weaknesses may lead to illegal database access or manipulation. Database configuration files and scripts are at server level resources and they should be sheltered severely to ensure the reliability of the database environment. In many database environments, membership in Operating system group is authorized full power of controlling over the database. To keep away from mistreatment and exploitation of the membership, those users membership and access to the database should be warranted frequently. One of the responsibilities of Administrator is to organize the settings of the operating system or to adjust the size of the buffer and the timeout period, so as to avoid the rejection of service attack stated previously. Most operating system vendors supply system patches generously and fast if any vulnerability has been detected on the system. Another weakness which is often ignored by the administrator is to bring up to date the operating system with the latest patches to abolish the newest revealed holes of the system. Network layer Data has to be transmitted through the network including local LAN and Internet when web applications communicate with database or other distributed components. The two major network transmissions are from user to web server, and from the web application to web database server. All these communications must be completely protected. Although the administrator can secured the network in local domain, the global internet is unmanageable. Encryption is another influential technology. It is set aside not only the invader cannot interrupt but also the encrypted data is unreadable and tremendously hard to presume or decrypt. The matching key can only be to decrypt the cipher text. The two means to apply encryption in database system are of the one way to use the encryption options provided by database products and another way to obtain encryption products form trusted vendors. In addition, one more approach for a safety connection is practicing the secured protocols above TCP/IP, for example, the technology of Ipsec and VPN (Virtual Private Network). The personal traffic in the course of the public internet by means of encryption technology can be provided by VPN. In generally, SSL (secure sockets layer) can be used as another way for cryptography on top of TCP/IP. Safe and sound web sessions can be obtained by Netscape. SSL has newly developed into Transport Layer Security (TLS) that make certain no other invasion may snoop or interfere with any communication. Utilization of SSL can help to validate and protect web sessions, but the computer itself cannot be safe. Web servers There are dissimilarities in functions of Web programs and common programs in area of safety. The major reason is safety for Web application program as the flaw is not easy to perceive. Web server that keeps the external disturbances is located in the middle of the application server and firewall. It can be applied as intermediary to get the data that we approved to be available. For the time being, the software commonly used in web applications is CGI (Common Gateway Interface). The web server can do a different function in easier way as it is uncomplicated. It is user-friendly as a web page counter. Moreover, for example as reading the input from the remote user, it can be used as multifarious to access the input as uncertainty to a local database. CGI proceeds the outcome to the user after retrieving the database. On the other hand, it is also risky since CGI scripts permit software applications to be carried out inside the web server. The well-known language for CGI scripts is Perl since it is simple to build applications and parse the input from the user. Nevertheless, Perl can be exploited by wicked users as it grants some forceful system commands. The invader can simply demolish the system if CGI was weakly executed by web server. This may be a huge hazard to the system as someone can easily eliminate the classified files from Web server as effortless to contact. To get rid of the intimidations, there are several ways to prevent these. The CGI scripts should be prohibited by abuser to write, and the arrangement should be done to CGI program that can be performed as a single way of directory. It should also be cautious in writing the CGI script. No more longer usage of CGI applications such as sample applications should be disposed as these are approachable to Web server and major intentions for invaders since older CGI samples have safety gaps. Without comprehensive handlings, default settings of Web application server can be a huge imperfection of the system if the database system networks with CGI. There need to make sure the system for which extent of operation is unapproved to the clients when a use logs into the database. Web serve with verification methods built in CGI is the most valuable way which means to prepare a CGI script with login name and password to prevent the files. By doing this, the files are protected to the web server apart from readable only. The safety gaps should be checked firmly and regularly to all the scripts even though these are obtained by self-developed, downloaded or bought from vendors. Firewalls The major significant layer to slab the external interruption of the system is Firewalls. Packet filter and proxy server are the two types of firewall mechanism. The connected data between the application and database are divided into packets which consist of much information in its headers, for examples, sources, destination address and protocol being used. A number of them are cleaned as with which source addresses are unbelievable to access to the databases. The arrangement of firewall should be done to access only one or few protocols which is helpful for application queries such as TCP whereas the other packets are choked-up firmly. Accordingly, the smallest amount of risks is maintained for the vulnerable system. Moreover, the ping of fatal loss will be kept systematically if the firewall is constructed to abandon the approached ICMP demand. The potential invaders should be marked out by reserving log files at the firewall. There are two connections in Proxy server. The first one is the connection between cooperations database and proxy server. Another one is the connection between proxy servers also provided the log and audit files. On the other hand, there are very hard to build up strong firewalls, and also too huge and tough to investigate the audit tracks. Database server Database servers are the fundamentals and essentials of greatest values in each and every sector of Education, Health, Military, Manpower, Economics, Modern Arts and Sciences, Information Technology, Electronic Businesses, Financial Institutions, Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System, and even universally comprised of sensitive information for business firms, customers, marketers and all stakeholders. The functions and purposes of Database servers are highly depended on the users of their particular intentions for applying the services provided by the operating systems. Some good safety practices for Database servers are to: use multiple passwords to access multi-functions of a server such as using one password to access the single system for administration; apply a different password for another operation; be audited for each and every transaction of the database; utilize application specific user name and password and should never use a default user name or password; back up the system thoroughly for late recovery in case of accidentally break down Allowing to know the end-user for the name and location of database is very worthless. In addition, exposing physical location and name of every database can also be a huge danger to the system. To cover up these issues, we should better practice the service names and pseudonyms. The several copies should be done for the important files which control the accessibility to the database services. Each and every copy should be also connected to a meticulous user group. Moreover, the members of each group should be allowed to access only the relevant documents concerning them. Conclusion The institutions, organizations and business firms mainly stored their important information and valuable assets as digital formats in online related excellent databases. The safety and security issues of Databases become strongly an essential role in the modern world for enterprises. To save from harm of database is to prevent the companiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ untouchable information resources and digital belongings. Database is the multifarious system and very complicated to handle and difficult to prevent from invaders. Last, but not the least, database protection is also to be taken significantly to the confidentiality, availability and integrity of the organizations like other measures of the safety systems. It can be guarded as diverse natures to cover up. Although auditing is critical, but analysis is also very tough while potential analytical tools will be an enormous contribution to protect the online rationality of database system. There should be reinforced to the corporate safety and security issues. Means of verification and encryption will play the essential role in modern database precaution and safety system.

The Summa Teologica By Thomas Essay -- essays research papers

The Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Born in Italy, Thomas Aquinas was one of the most educated men of his time. Aquinas, whose family were noble, was educated as a monk and later continued his education at the University of Naples followed by the University of Paris where he studied the ancient Greek thought of Aristotle. Educated in both philosophy and theology,Aquinas is thought to be one of the most important philosophers of Catholicism. One ofAquinas's most influential writings is the Summa Theologica. In this document, Aquinas clarifies four questions concerning the Church: Whether it can be demonstrated t Godexist? Whether it is always sinfuhatl to wage war? Whether it is lawful for Clerics and Bishops to fight? And whether it is lawful to fight on holy days? He answers each question thoroughly but indecisively; however, when he answers the second question it seems his conclusion have been manipulated in ways that can benefit the church without making them look double sided with their teachings. The second question is: Whether it is always sinful to wage war? In this question Aquinas states in his objection (1), 'It would seem that it is always sinful to wage war because punishment is not inflicted except for sin. Now those who wage war are threatened by our Lord with punishment; therefore, all wars are unlawful.'; (172) However, he justifies the act of war by giving three necessities. The first he mentions is only an au...

Rose’s Breast Cancer in Jane Smileys A Thousand Acres :: Smiley Thousand Acres Essays

Rose’s Breast Cancer in A Thousand Acres Pete, representing erratic male rage in the novel, has a history of abusing Rose. This climaxes when he breaks her arm. It follows a terrible logic that since male rage hurts her body, so does her own, the impetus of which is provided by the patriarchal system. Ginny's description of Pete fits Rose equally well, with an anger that "would be quiet, but corrosive, erupting at odd times" (31). Rose's breast cancer symbolizes the way she is literally consumed with anger (the cancer eats at her flesh, consuming her body). Anger is the only way she knows to deal with her father, her husband, men and the system they represent: "We're not going to be sad. We're going to be angry until we die. It's the only hope."(354) She doesn't see that anger is destructive, that anger is in fact why things have turned out the way they have. She is continually reminded of the toll her anger takes on her body, as her arm unconsciously strays to the lost muscles under her other arm, by the lost breast. Nevertheless, she ignores the signs, anger has become a part of her body. The fact that this act resembles a posture signifying an attempt to contain her heart -her overflowing anger- suggests this, as does the fact that she especially does this when she is angry: "She pushed her hair back with her hand, then put her fist on her hip, defiant. Except that on the way down, her fingers fluttered over the vanished breast, the vanished muscles." (151) Her body, then, enacts her strategy. If you can't beat them, join them. If the system is based on egocentricity, cruelty, coldness and rage, then those will be her weapons. When Jess backs out of farming their land, she says: "When it came right down to building on something that we had, it scared him to build on death and bad luck and anger and destruction" (352). The underlying assumption of her statement is that it is impossible to challenge all the death and destruction, so one might as well turn it to one's own advantage. This strategy, ironically, turns her into what the patriarchy has accused hers and Ginny's intertextual counterparts -Regan and Goneril- of; an inhuman half-man. When she reigns supreme over the thousand acres, she has turned into her own worst nightmare: her father.

The Vampire Diaries: The Struggle Chapter Sixteen

Long ago, in the dark side streets of Florence, starving, frightened, and exhausted, Stefan had made himself a vow. Several vows, in fact, about using the Powers he sensed within himself, and about how to treat the weak, blundering, but still-human creatures around him. Now he was going to break them all. As he'd thought, the surge of Power had passed over Bonnie and Meredith and followed him, but it had receded again, and was now drawn back, waiting. He wouldn't let it wait long. Unencumbered by the burden of Elena's body, he broke into a predator's lope on the empty road. The freezing sleet and wind didn't bother him much. His hunter's senses pierced through them. He turned them all to the task of locating the prey he wanted. No thinking of Elena now. Later, when this was over. Tyler and his friends were still in the Quonset hut. Good. They never knew what was coming as the window burst into flying glass shards and the storm blew inside. Stefan meant to kill when he seized Tyler by the neck and sank his fangs in. That had been one of his rules, not to kill, and he wanted to break it. But another of the toughs came at him before he had quite drained Tyler of blood. The guy wasn't trying to protect his fallen leader, only to escape. It was his bad luck that his route took him across Stefan's path. Stefan flipped him to the ground and tapped the new vein eagerly. The hot coppery taste revived him, warmed him, flowed through him like fire. It made him want more. Power. Life. They had it; he needed it. With the glorious rush of strength that came with what he'd already drunk, he stunned them easily. Then he moved from one to another, drinking deep and throwing them away. It was like popping tops on a six-pack. He was on the last when he saw Caroline huddling in the corner. His mouth was dripping as he raised his head to look at her. Those green eyes, usually so narrow, showed white all around like those of a terrified horse. Her lips were pale blurs as she gabbled soundless pleas. He pulled her to her feet by the green sashes at her waist. She was moaning, her eyes rolling up in their sockets. He wound his hand in her auburn hair to position the exposed throat where he wanted it. His head reared back to strike – and Caroline screamed and went limp. He dropped her. He'd had enough anyway. He was bursting with blood, like an overfed tick. He had never felt so strong, so charged with elemental power. Now it was time for Damon. He went out of the Quonset hut the same way he'd come in. But not in human form. A hunting falcon soared out the window and wheeled into the sky. The new shape was wonderful. Strong†¦ and cruel. And its eyes were sharp. It took him where he wanted, skimming over the oak trees of the woods. He was looking for a particular clearing. Stefan ripped bloody strips out of his arms and heard Damon's answering scream of pain and anger. I'm not your weak little brother any more. He sent the thought down to Damon on a stunning blast of Power.And this time I've come for your blood. He felt the backwash of hatred from Damon, but the voice in his mind was mocking.So this is the thanks I get for saving you and your betrothed ? Stefan's wings folded and he dived again, his whole world narrowed to one objective. Killing. He went for Damon's eyes, and the stick Damon had picked up whistled past his new body. His talons tore into Damon's cheek and Damon's blood ran. Good. You shouldn't have left me alive, he told Damon.You should have killed both of us at once. I'll be glad to correct the mistake! Damon had been unprepared before, but now Stefan could feel his drawing Power, arming himself, standing ready.But first you might tell me whom I'm supposed to have killed this time. The falcon's brain could not deal with the riot of emotions the taunting question called up. Screaming wordlessly, it plummeted on Damon again, but this time the heavy stick struck home. Injured, one wing hanging, the falcon dropped behind Damon's back. Stefan changed to his own form at once, scarcely feeling the pain of his broken arm. Before Damon could turn, he grabbed him, the fingers of his good hand digging into his brother's neck and spinning him around. When he spoke, it was almost gently. â€Å"Elena,† he said, whispered, and went for Damon's throat. It was dark, and very cold, and someone was hurt. Someone needed help. But she was terribly tired. Elena's eyelids fluttered and opened and that took care of the darkness. As for the cold†¦ she was bone-cold, freezing, chilled to the marrow. And no wonder; there was ice all over her. Somewhere, deep down, she knew it was more than that. What had happened? She'd been at home, asleep – no, this was Founders' Day. She'd been in the cafeteria, on the stage. Someone's face had looked funny. It was too much to cope with; she couldn't think. Disembodied faces floated before her eyes, fragments And so tired. Better go back to sleep then. The ice wasn't really that bad. She started to lie down, and then the cries came to her again. She heard them, not with her ears, but with her mind. Cries of anger and of pain. Someone was very unhappy. She sat quite still, trying to sort it all out. There was a quiver of movement at the edge of her vision. A squirrel. She could smell it, which was strange because she'd never smelled a squirrel before. It stared at her with one bright black eye and then it scampered up the willow tree. Elena realized she'd made a grab for it only when she came up empty with her fingernails digging into bark. Now that was ridiculous. What onearth did she want a squirrel for? She puzzled over it for a minute, then lay back down, exhausted. The cries were still going on. She tried to cover her ears, but that did nothing to block them out. Someone was hurt, and unhappy, and fighting. That was it. There was a fight going on. All right. She'd figured it out. Now she could sleep. She couldn't, though. The cries beckoned to her, drew her toward them. She felt an irresistible need to follow them to their source. Andthen she could go to sleep. After she saw†¦ him. Oh, yes, it was coming back now. She rememberedhim. He was the one who understood her, who loved her. He was the one she wanted to be with forever. His face appeared out of the mists in her mind. She considered it lovingly. All right, then. Forhim she would get up and walk through this ridiculous sleet until she found the proper clearing. Until she could join him. Then they'd be together. The very thought of him seemed to warm her. There was a fire inside him that few people could see. She saw it, though. It was like the fire inside her. He seemed to be having some sort of trouble at the moment. At least, there was a lot of shouting. She was close enough to hear it with her ears as well as her mind now. There, beyond that grandfather oak tree. That was where the noise was coming from. He was there, with his black, fathomless eyes, and his secret smile. And he needed her help. She would help him. Shaking ice crystals out of her hair, Elena stepped into the clearing in the wood.

Account for the continued existence of gender inequalities at work

Despite the laws and movements, women still do not enjoy equality in the workplace, in position or wages. In this essay I will discuss the origins of gender inequality in an effort to find out where this was first instigated. Initially I will talk about the historical motives of gender inequality and the work of the earlier women's movements and campaigns for equal rights in the early 1900's. I will then discuss various feminist theories of gender inequality, including recent government statistics. Finally I will conclude with my own viewpoints on gender inequality in the workplace in an attempt to discover why it continues to exist today. Ann Oakley 1981(cited in Haralambos and Holborn) gave a historical analysis of the changing role in society for women from before the industrial revolution in the 19th century to the 1970's housewife. Oakley says that men and women and also the children of the working class were employed in the factories. 1819 saw the beginning of the factory act that gradually restricted child labour. From 1841 to 1914 (the beginning of World War 1) women were seen as a threat to men and their employment. In 1852 women's employment was greatly reduced by The Mines Act which banned women from working in the mines, tradition said women should be in the home as a housewife and mother. In 1851 only 1 in 4 women were in paid employment by 1911 it was 1in 10. With the combination of these various acts passed and the growing restrictions on women's employment, more and more women began to stay at home but not by their own choice. Harolambos and Holborn 2000 p. 144) World War I saw many women return to the workforce while men were away fighting in the war; the economy needed women in the workforce even though they were paid less than they were worth. In February of 1918 the representation of people's act gave 2 Women the right to vote for the first time. Under this act only women over 30 were allowed to vote if they were householders, wives of householders, paying annual rent over i5, or graduates of British universities or women who were qualified although not graduates. About eight and a half million women were able to vote in the 1918 election. Women also became eligible to stand as MPs. Several suffragette campaigners stood for Parliament in the 1918 election. None were successful. Between 1914 and 1950 many women returned to work, but their primary role was still seen as that of the housewife/ mother, the industrial revolution had initiated many significant changes for women. Men were not happy about this as seen in the words of Jack Tanner: â€Å"We, as an organisation are opposed to the introduction of women as a general principal. â€Å"(Cited in Walby 1987). Braverman (1974) disagreed with Tanner saying there was a strong case for women being encouraged into the labour force, and that necessity for cheap unskilled labour was a requirement created by employers. Jack Tanner (at the time the leader of the Amalgamated Engineering Union in 1940) was doing his utmost to prevent women entering the male dominated workplace. The reason why men like Tanner should be so opposed to women to work in his male dominated union was not just because of their fear that women would work for fewer wages than men it was more a system of patriarchal objections which women's employment threatened to disrupt. Walby 1987 p2-3) 1970 saw the Equal Pay Act, which meant that women were to receive equal pay to men if they were employed to do similar work of the same value. In 1975 the Sex Discrimination Act was brought in to stop discrimination on the grounds of sex in employment, education and equal chances of promotion. Women in work i. e. paid employment have recently increased, between 1971 and 1997 (E. O. C. briefings, Work and Parenting) the percentage of women in work has increased so that women have now caught up with men in the labour market. The main reason for this is that more and more married women are going outside the home to work, although lone mother's statistics have dropped. (Harolambos and Holborn) 3 Sylvia Walby in Gender Transformations (1997) agrees with these findings, saying that since the 1980's integration of women in the male dominated workplace has increased dramatically, the number of women occupying higher ranking positions mainly in the professional and managerial careers has risen by 155% as opposed to a 33% rise by men. An increase in women's educational qualifications is seen as one of the main reasons for this remarkable boost to women's participation in higher ranking jobs. (Cited in Robinson and Richardson 1997) Norris (1987) says unquestionably women have always worked, but it is in caring for children and the elderly and the preparation and serving of food and looking after a household, known as unpaid labour, this has constantly been invisible in official statistics. One of the most significant changes for women in the labour force since the 1960's has been the percentage of women returning to the workforce and the decline of men's employment. Recently for every 6 men in paid employment there were 4 women, it has been predicted that these trends will continue to increase. However there are visible differences between some countries, in Scandinavia and North America, for example, women make up half the official labour force compared with less than a third in Spain, Ireland and America. In countries such as Canada Portugal and Norway the number of women in paid employment doubled. However in countries such as France, Britain and Germany, Women have been known to leave the workforce to start a family only to return in later years, this is known as the ‘M' curve. (Politics & Sexual Equality1987) Women in work i. e. paid employment has recently increased, between 1971 and 1997 the percentage of women in work has increased so that women have now caught up with men in the labour market. EOC briefings, work and parenting1997) The main reason for this is that more and more married women are going outside the home to work, although lone mother's statistics have dropped (Hood 1997) 4. Barron and Norris (Haralambos and Holborn2000) argued that there are 2 not 1 labour market as outlined below: Primary labour market is made up from good salaries, job security, good working conditions and good promotion prospects; secondary labour market is made up from lower paid jobs, less job security, lower working conditions and less opportunities of job promotion. These work side by side but it is near impossible for someone from the secondary labour market to be promoted to the primary labour market. Primary sector workers include professionals and managerial, highly skilled manual workers, secondary include unskilled and semi skilled workers manual and non manual workers. Dual labour market results from employers using these methods to keep the type of labour they require so incentives are offered to keep highly skilled in the workplace, secondary sector are seen as dispensable, easily replaced, no incentives for high wages, job security, or promotions is offered to them. The dual labour market can apply to both men and women but mainly women, who are seen as easy to replace and having no interest in learning new skills and less concerned with high wages. Men are still seen as the major bread winner and women's seen as having low status in society and not normally belonging to unions is one of the reasons why they are not as likely to aim for primary sector employment. Normally once a woman begins secondary employment there is little chance she will progress to the primary sector (Haralambos and Holborn 2000) Gender divisions and inequality has been linked to feminist campaigners who have tried to put an end to sexual discrimination and inequality in the workplace. The dominance of males throughout society is known as Patriarchy. Patriarchy explains gender and radical feminist explain male power. Radical feminists like Susan Walby in 1997 explains that ‘Patriarchy is seen as the primary form of social inequality' the domestic area is not the only one that women participate in. She shows how the idea of patriarchy is useful in explaining the relationship between women's restriction's in 5 he private and public area by showing that they work equally to achieve this dependence as well as maintaining patriarchy. Walby explains that it is men who are to blame for women's oppression; women are treated unequal because of their unwaged position in society and also because of household commitments. (Robinson and Richardson 1997) Recently in America there have been various discussions about the Glass Ceiling Syndrome and that there is a certain plateau that women can progress to in the workplace, then reach no further. Below are the three methods by which these are implemented; . Networking by word of mouth – most large companies fill vacancies through word of mouth connections, employees are sometimes identified and interviewed (at lunches, dinners or clubs) and then made an offer of employment outside normal working hours 2. Networking by Employee Referrals – an employee refers another employee from a group of (mostly) men mainly from within their own social group; this again does little for the promotional prospects of women. 3. Executive Search Firms – some companies use executive search firms to fill a large number of highs ranking jobs. Some companies have not made some of these firms aware of the equal opportunity obligations under the law. (www. theglassceiling. ) One of the projects that the government has recently introduced is the Work track Programme; this was said to benefit long term unemployed and to help them gain new skills and also to help them back into the workforce. It was said to be particularly beneficial to single parents (mainly women) with children as the family credit top up could be claimed. The downside of this was that it only lasted for 6 months. It created a false feeling of wealth and it was short term, the after effects are longer lasting. Personally I participated in this programme and although I thoroughly enjoyed my work experience it was very difficult to go back to income support. Many other non Work track jobs I applied for were not as flexible, wages were a lot lower and childcare was not as easily accessible, and there was also no follow on programme 7 either which would have been very helpful. On completing this Programme participants are informed that they will be ineligible to partake in any other Worktrack courses for the next three years. Personally I believe this is very unfair, on one hand he government is giving long term unemployed the opportunity to get a taste of what it is like to get back into the labour market, many of the women in this project had not worked for a long time either because they had stayed at home to raise a family or because of lack of skills or educational qualifications and just when they believe they are getting out of the poverty trap the government takes it away from them. Basically it looks to me like another way for the government rigging the unemployment benefit statistics to look as though there are more women in employment than there actually is. Unfortunately I can only account here for some of the reasons I believe exist for the continued gender inequality in the workplace today, in my remit of 2000 words it would be impossible to cover everything. It is, I feel significant and ironic that it had to be a woman, Ann Oakley, who undertook the first ever study on women and housework, she was incidentally told by her boss (probably a man) ‘to go away and come back with a proper topic'. (Harolambos and Holborn 2000)) In my research for this assignment I have to confess to feeling at times more than a little angry at the blatant and visible discrimination of women in the workplace down through the years. Gender equality in the workplace is still a myth that I personally believe will not be solved in the immediate future, although it has certainly improved in past few decades. I acknowledge that men have been somewhat discriminated against also but nowhere near the same level that women have been and not for such a long period of time. In an ideal world men and women would share equal rights, equal pay and equal status in all societies.